Impact of Interest Rate Liberalisation on Chinese Economy Essay

Impact of Interest Rate Liberalisation on Chinese Economy - Essay Example China is currently a key player in BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) and is a signatory of major international agreements (Peng, 2009). This has put pressure on the country to liberalize its interest rates and cause it to be determined by the forces of demand and supply. This project takes a critical look at the changes in the interest rate of China and its impact on the Communist Structures of Country viz Savings, State-owned Enterprises and other systems of the controlled economy. A controlled economy maintains pre-determined rates that are fixed by the leaders in order to attain a given target. However, with the pressure on the country to use the forces of demand and supply to fix macroeconomic policies, the Communist structures and the Capitalist world come face-to-face. This research seeks to examine the impact and implications of this conflict on structures in the Chinese economy. Also, it will examine a real case involving the impact of these static interest rates on the Bank Capital Adequacy Ratio. The inferences and conclusions of this research will provide authoritative text and information about the trends in the nation under review. Through this, other scholars and researchers would be able to build on it and benefit from it. In other words, this project seeks to bring new knowledge into the world. The aim of the paper is to examine â€Å"The Dynamics of Changes in Chinas Interest Rate Liberalisation and its impacts on the Communist Structures of the economy: SOEs, Savings and Investments and the Measures to be Taken and The Impacts on Bank Capital Adequacy Ratio†. In attaining this end, the following objectives will be examined: The hypothesis tested in the research is that: â€Å"The Chinese Economy is doing quite well under the Communist Structures. The introduction of interest rate liberalization is going to disrupt the system and lead to major adjustment problems.

What Criticisms of 19th Century Life Is Dickens Making in the Novel Great Expectations Essay Example for Free

What Criticisms of 19th Century Life Is Dickens Making in the Novel Great Expectations Essay Charles Dickens wrote the novel Great Expectations in 1861. He originally wrote it as weekly instalments for a magazine called ‘All the year round. ’ In the novel he criticised many things about 19th century life, for example, the importance of being a gentleman and social status, crime and punishment, childhood and last but not least the role of women. Charles Dickens was born on 7th February, 1812, and spent the first nine years of his life living in the coastal regions of Kent. Dickens’s father, John, was a kind and likable man, but he was hopeless with money and piled up tremendous debts throughout his life. When Dickens was nine, his family moved to London and when he was twelve, his father was arrested and taken to prison for unpaid debts. Dickens’s mother moved his seven brothers and sisters into prison with their father, but she arranged for the young Dickens to live alone outside the prison and work with other children pasting labels on bottles in a blacking warehouse. Dickens found the three months he spent apart from his family highly traumatic. Not only was the job itself miserable, but he considered himself too good for it, earning the contempt of the other children. After his father was released from prison, Dickens returned to school. He eventually became a law clerk, then a court reporter, and finally a novelist. Many of the events from Dickens’s early life are mirrored in Great Expectations, which, apart from David Copperfield, is his most autobiographical novel. Pip, the novel’s hero lives in the marsh country, works at a job he hates, considers himself too good for his surroundings, and experiences material success in London at a very early age, exactly as Dickens himself did. In addition, one of the novel’s most appealing characters, Wemmick, is a law clerk, and the law, justice, and the courts are all important components of the story. In Victorian society, a gentleman was a person of upper or middle class. Usually, one was born into being a part of the gentry as it was almost impossible to move up the social hierarchy. Being a part of this elite sector of the class system is what Dickens explores and in doing so exploits the ambiguity of the term ‘gentleman’ and the complications as to what makes a man become gentleman. One of the major criticisms of 19th century life in the novel is the need to distinguish between social prestige and moral worth. Dickens explores this theme by questioning ideas about the nature of a gentleman. Pip is central to this theme, as he represents the link between the social classes. He is the village boy who becomes a gentleman with the help of a criminal. However, the contrasting view given through Herbert Pocket and his father shows us that ‘no man who was not a true gentleman at heart, ever was, since the world began, a true gentleman in manner. Although Herbert has very little money, he is unquestionably a gentleman, both in the social sense, as he is well-born and has received an upper-class education, and in the moral sense, as he teaches Pip table manners, and, by example, that manners are meaningless unless they derive from sound moral principles. This is also illustrated through Compeyson, Miss Havershams lover, who possessed a superficial elegance that blinded people to his real nature. ‘He’s a gentleman, if you please, this villain’. Drummle is yet another example of an exaggerated type of gentleman. Although he has inherited money, and great expectations, he has no moral standards and remains idle, proud, reserved and suspicious. Dickens saw two sorts of gentlemen, Joe Gargery, who is a simple and hardworking blacksmith. He is also humble and kind. This was illustrated when he claimed that his father who was also a blacksmith ‘What sume’er the failings on his part, remember reader he were that good in his heart. ’ However, Drummle defined through his knowledge of social etiquette, the extent of his education, appearance and income. Dickens showed in his novel that one does not need to be wealthy and educated to be a gentleman. Crime and punishment is a key theme in ‘Great Expectations’ which is linked closely to justice and injustice. Pip is introduced to crime and criminals very early on when he is confronted with Magwitch on the marshes. This encounter compels Pip to steal from his own family, the iron file and the pork pie. So the first crime we see committed is by Pip, which is significant because the book is centred around crime and how Pip gets more and more involved. When Magwitch is caught, he is taken to the prison hulk where Pip got an insight into the justice system and saw how the prisoners were treated. Dickenss dissatisfaction with the prison system is evident when Wemmick is giving Pip a walking tour through the streets of London. Further evidence of Dickens concern can be found in Pips reaction to the Debtors Door of Newgate Prison, in which culprits came to be hanged. Using Pip as a vessel to express his latent views of criminals, Dickens expresses his deep-rooted memories of poverty and a father sentenced to debtors prison. This contradicts the fact that in real life, Dickens ‘believed’ the ‘model prisons’ to be too lenient to their inmates and extolled instead the virtues of hard and unrewarding labour, a regime which relied more upon punishment than moral improvement. This suggests that in real life, Dickens felt that it was more important to focus on the punishment of criminals, rather than giving them a second chance to redeem themselves. Further evidence of Dickenss concern for maximum punishment can be found in this statement regarding the punishment of a local street ruffian: ‘I would have his back scarified often and deep’. This attitude most likely stems from the fact that Dickens legal training gave him a far stricter outlook on prisoners. Dickens is often credited for being influential in the passing of the Capital Punishment Act of 1868, which banned public executions The reason Dickens was against public executions was because he felt they only made people sympathize too much with murderer, rather than the victim. Dickens paints an extremely vivid picture of childhood through the eyes and mind of Pip and sees the world through the eyes of a child. This was possible because Dickens understood the thoughts and feelings of children and applied this to Pips every thought and action when he wrote the novel. Dickens had an obvious gift for creating child characters in his works. The word ‘pip’ itself refers to a seed from a plant. Seeds need to be nurtured if they are to grow and flourish. In order to understand both Dickens talent and his compulsion to write about children it important to realize that through the characters in his novels he took up the plight of all children. In Dickens view of childhood, he felt that children have certain needs, for example, guidance in a nurturing home, to be free from emotional and physical abuse, to have a good education, and to be allowed to use their imaginations and as in the novel, Pip’s father figure, Joe Gargery had to work hard like his father before him and did not get an education. The phrase ‘brought up by hand’ implied emotional and physical abuse and yet it was meant to care and love in a very harsh way. In order for children to succeed in life he felt these needs must be met. Through his portrayal of child characters in the novel, Great Expectations, Dickens demonstrates how adults rarely, nor adequately provided for these particular needs that children have. In Great Expectations one can see how the women who fit Dickens ideas were rewarded with happy lives, usually in the form of marriage. Like in the case of Biddy, she was a nurse to a maimed Mrs. Joe and was the epitome of domesticity. She was later rewarded with a happy life by her marriage to Joe. Dickens imagines two types of women, subordinate and insubordinate, and rewards women according to their ability to render domestic harmony On the other hand, the women who did not conform to these ideas were punished in one way or another. Even though not all of Dickens attitudes reflected what was typical of the period, many did. Great Expectations is a reflection of those attitudes that were most likely encouraged by the women in his life. He believed as many did during the Victorian period that the womans place was in the home. Women were the caregivers of the world. Their lives were supposed to be centred on their family, for example, characters like Biddy and Clara Barley play the part of a natural, motherly type. Biddy takes over caring for Joe and Pip after Mrs. Joe is attacked by Orlick and dies soon after. Biddy, like Pip, is an orphan. She was the one that taught Pip to read and later taught Joe. Great Expectations is set in early Victorian England, a time when great social changes were sweeping the nation. The Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries had transformed the social andscape, enabling capitalists and manufacturers to amass huge fortunes. Although social class was no longer entirely dependent on the circumstances of one’s birth, the divisions between rich and poor remained nearly as wide as ever. Throughout England, the manners of the upper class were very strict and conservative: gentlemen and ladies were expected to have thorough classical educations and to behave appropriately in innumerable social situations These criticisms as defined by Dickens in his novel were felt in almost every facet of Great Expectations. Pip’s sudden rise from country labourer to city gentleman forces him to move from one social extreme to another while dealing with the strict rules and expectations that governed Victorian England. Ironically, this novel about the desire for wealth and social advancement was written partially out of economic necessity. He also portrays characters caught up by social forces primarily via lower-class conditions but which usually steer them to tragic ends beyond their control.

Operational Requirements And Service Conditions Of Piston Engineering Essay

Operational Requirements And Service Conditions Of Piston Engineering Essay ABSTRACT There is an extent in changing the trend of the material by its properties and its characteristic. The majority of the materials completely depend on the application of the material in the component and its versatility. The components by material vary from each other by its properties. The materials have the tendency to change its manufacturing process by its character. A component can be manufactured by using various materials depending according to the application and its life. In this paper we discussed about the manufacturing process of the components like piston, connecting rod and the crank shaft. The alternative methodologies and usage of alternative materials are also explained by using CES chart with its advantages. INTRODUCTION Selecting the appropriate material is an integral part of the successful implementation of an engineers design. A design engineers ability to objectively quantify the combined marketing, technical and manufacturing requirements as they apply to the material selection is critical to the actual as well as the perceived success of the product. This paper contains a deep knowledge about the selection of the material and its manufacturing procedure with justification. CHAPTER 1 GENERAL COMPONENT DETAILS 1.1 PISTON The piston is the most essential component of the engine which actually transfer the energy output from the combustion chamber to the crankshaft through connecting rod. This is a pressure-tight cylindrical plunger which is subjected to the expanding gas pressure. Basically, piston structural components are head, skirt, gudgeon pin, grooves and lands. 1.1.1 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND SERVICE CONDITIONS OF PISTON Hence in order to transmit this high power output the piston must be designed lightly and must be robust. The piston must be of higher strength material that can with stand the high pressure that is been generated due to the burning of air-fuel mixture within the cylinder. Piston must be fitted properly to control the expansion due to temperature, without which the piston will fit loosely when in cold and they bind themselves when it gets warmed. 1.1.2 FUNCTIONS OF PISTON Transmit energy from combustion unit to piston pin, Serve as a carrier for the piston ring which seals the compression in the cylinder, Act as a guide for upper end of the connecting rod, Withstand high temperature expansion Despite the heat energy to the coolant. piston.gif Fig(1) Piston Assembly Conditions of piston at normally high speed, Piston moves from the top to bottom of the cylinder and vice versa with a acceleration of speed of around 50mph at midpoint and decelerates. The piston is subjected to pressure of about 6.8MPA. The piston is subjected to temperature of about 315 °C.[1] 1.1.3 DESIRABLE MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS The Piston materials must meet the following conditions, [2] Low thermal expansions for arresting the hot gases. High thermal conductivity for releasing heat from piston head. High strength to mass ratio (light weight) for transmitting high power output. High fatigue strength for increasing the material strength. Good resistance to surface abrasion. To reduce skirt and ring groove wear. 1.2 CONNECTING ROD Connecting rod is a part of the engine which connects the piston to the crankshaft. This connecting rod converts the linear motion of the piston to rotating motion to the crankshaft. 1.2.1 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND SERVICE CONDITIONS [] Connecting rods should be made as long as possible to reduce the oblique angle by the cylinder axis. Both tensile and compressive stresses are produced due to piston reciprocating-inertia loads. In order to evade scuffing proper lubrication is needed. Lubrication of the small end by a hole drilled along the shank should be so arranged that the hole intersects the big end bore circumferentially. To prevent buckling the rod shank is made in an H section, i.e., with a central web and two end flanges. Intense heat is generated at high rotational speed, so large bearing area is required to make the rod wear well. They should be checked for the correct length, weight distribution, straightness and freedom from twist. 1.2.2 FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTING ROD As the word is self explanatory, the connecting rod connects the piston and the crankshaft. The connecting rod continuously transmits energy from the combustion chamber to the crank shaft. It actually converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft. These dynamic motions of the connecting rod makes it as light as possible whilst having a rigid section. 14900_19847.jpg 1.2.3 DESIRABLES MATERIAL CONDITIONS Must be strong to remain rigid under loading and light enough to reduce the inertia forces. Material must have good elastic modulus. It must have high fatigue strength in order to avoid failure due to high cycle fatigue. Heat capacity of the connecting rod must be high. Must withstand buckling stress due to large compressive loads. Must be of low density to avoid bearing failure. 1.3 CRANKSHAFT Crankshaft is the central link-up for the power produced by each cylinder in the engine. This crankshaft is one of the heavier part of the engine which is to be made strong to withstand the load from the con-rod. 1.3.1 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND SERVICE CONDITIONS Fillet areas locations are to be verified since both torsional and bending loads are experienced during its service life. Counterbalancing of weight is to be considered in order to counteract the centrifugal forces created by crankpin. The projected areas of the big-end and main-end journals must be adequate to withstand maximum cylinder pressure. After grounding should have a surface finish of 0.5 µm to minimize bearing wear. Crankshaft must have the capacity to absorb the thrust loads from clutches or torque converter. 1.3.2 FUNCTIONS It transmits power from combustion chamber to the flywheel through piston, piston rings and connecting rod. It harness and phase the individual cylinders power impulses transmitted through the mechanism of the connecting rod which converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to rotary motion at crankshaft. It changes the linear displacement due to sudden shock caused by the combustion chamber into smooth rotary motion which is the input to many devices. Crankshaft rotates in the cylinder in the cylinder block of the main bearing which supports the crankshaft which reduces the excessive wear. http://www.motorera.com/dictionary/pics/c/crankshaft.gif 1.3.3 DESIRABLES MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS Material nominal stress must not exceed 20% of tensile strength in bending and 15% in torsion. Must have the capacity to withstand large force from gas combustion. Must have high heat withstanding capacity. Must have low thermal expansion. Must have high adequate strength, toughness, hardness, and high fatigue strength. CHAPTER 2-MATERIAL SELECTION 2.1 MATERIAL SELECTION FOR PISTON[hh] Material selection process is an integral part of the overall product development process and must be considered in the early phases of the product definition. The material chosen for manufacturing the product is based on the following consideration, Mass consideration Strength and wear consideration Heat-conduction consideration Expansion consideration Based on the above considerations the aluminium alloys satisfies all the factors comparing to cast iron and steel. Mass consideration: Since the pistons reciprocating force is high at high speed, it is necessary to turn to light material instead of cast iron and steel. It has a relative density of 2.6 when compared with 7.8 for cast iron. Strength and wear consideration: Since pure aluminium has low tensile strength of 92 to124 N/mm2 and fall of to 31N/mm2 at 300 °C, it is always alloyed with copper or silicon for piston materials which improves the strength to mass ratio. At high level of silicon, the alloy exhibits excellent surface hardness, wear resistance properties and excellent dimensional stability. Heat-conduction consideration: The better heat dissipation of aluminium-alloy pistons compared to cast-iron pistons greatly reduces the maximum piston-crown operating temperature of 250C 300C for allou pistons and 400 to 500C for cast iron. Expansion Consideration: The thermal expansion is less for Al-Si alloy which has a thermal expansin of 0.000 021 and 0.000 017 per  °C for 12% Si alloy and 22% Si alloy. Fig() CES chart 2.1.1 SURFACE CONSIDERATON: Due to high speed reciprocation of the piston there may be so many losses or issues that must be considered. In that the frictional losses in piston assembly are majorly due to generation of heat. Subsequent raise in temperature can have this effect in the operation. In order to overcome this problem, proper material with good thermal conductivity is chosen. 2.2 MATERIAL SELECTON FOR CON-ROD The connecting rods are crucial and highly stressed component of the automotive engine subjected to alternative tensile and compressive stresses. Hence the material must be chosen based on the following conditions; Good elastic modulus, High fatigue strength, Low density to avoid bearing failure and High heat capacity. Based on the following conditions microalloyed steel is chosen which meets all the requirements mentioned above. This steel has a hardness level of 20-30 HRC. Small microalloying additions of vanadium and niobium are used to increase the strength of carbon steel plates. 1.1%Mn-0.5%Cr is the best combination to obtain thee high fatigue strength. Lowering the carbon content down to 0.33% and increasing the vanadium content to control the hardness gives toughness which improves the fatigue strength of free machining grades with S and Pb. The finally obtained chemical composition is 0.33%C-1.05%Mn-0.5%Cr-0.12%V-.055%S-0.20%Pb-Ca which has fatigue strength of 26% higher than a conventional microalloyed forging steel. As for connecting rod, application of light metal like titanium alloys and aluminium alloys are been tested, due to high cost in light metal the connecting rod are made of microalloyed steel. This structure contains ferrictic-pearlitic-bainit. Fig() CES chart 2.2.1 SURFACE CONSIDERATION The connecting rod is one of the highly stress concentrated part of the automotive engine. It is known that in the four cycle engines the connecting-rod small end is particularly stressed when the con-rod is at top dead centre at the beginning of the induction stroke, since the small end is ovalized by the tensile inertial forces exerted by the mass of the piston assembly. During both the stroke condition (expansion and compression) gudgeon pin pushes the small end along the lower end of the arc, by which the compression load directly acts on the con-rod without considerably stressing the eye. The eye is therefore subjected to repeated stresses, whereas the con-rod shank stress are reversed.(10) 2.3 MATERIAL SELECTION FOR CRANKSHAFT (hh) Crankshaft are from materials which can be readily shaped, machined and heat-treated and which have desirable mechanical properties such as adequate strength, toughness, hardness and high fatigue strength and of course , low cost. The highest quality steels are usually specified for satisfying the constraints given. Metals with optimum combination of bending and the stiffness are identified by creating a charts in CES by using performance indices in axes. From the figure it is clear that the low carbon steel, high carbon steel, low alloy steel and medium carbon steel are satisfying the given constraints. Low alloy steel with chromium-molybdenum is used for crankshaft. This forging steel is suitable for medium to heavy-duty petrol and diesel-engine crankshafts. It presents no difficulty in hot working and afterwards can be easily machined to size. The alloying composition is 0.4% carbon, 1.2% chromium and 0.3% molybdenum. 2.3.1 SURFACE CONSIDERATIONS Since crankshaft is the most highly strained part of the engine with high load acting on it the following factors must be considered. Pitting failure can occur in the crank-pin Due to lack of surface integrity lack of control over stress and temperature. CHAPTER 3 MANUFACTURING PROCESS 3.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR PISTON[SS] Based on the material selected as aluminium alloys for piston, the manufacturing process is carried-out through casting because of its capability to produce near-net shaped parts at the required production rate. Hence the process selected for this component is the Gravity die casting. 3.1.1 GRAVITY DIE CASTING The pistons are produced from high-silicon alloys, such as 413.0 aluminium alloy. This alloy has high fluidity and can create high-definition surfaces through permanent mould casting; it also has high resistance to corrosion, good weldability, and low specific gravity. The universal acceptance of aluminium pistons for internal combustion engine applications is due to mainly to their light weight and high thermal conductivity.[ss] This type of casting is suitable for high volume production. The main advantages are the dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Castings ranging from few grams to 100kgs of aluminium alloy could be casted. This process could achieve higher mechanical properties than other casting by heat treatment. Since silicon has got good properties like, low shrinkage and imparting high fluidity which results in good casting. The maximum amount of silicon in cast alloy are in range of 22%-24%.(11) Manufacturing route: [ss] The h13 tool-steel mould is preheated to 200 °C to 450 °C, depending on the cast alloy and part size. Initially, the preheat is achieved with a hand-held torch, the mould reaches a steady-state temperature. Molten aluminium is heated to between 100 °C-200 °C above its liquidus temperature as shown below. Once the molten shot is in place the piston drives the mould in its place. Because of high thermal conductivity of the mould material, heat extraction from the molten metal is rapid and the metal solidifies in small channels before filling the mould completely. [9] 3.1.2 MICROSTRUCTURAL CHANGES Silicon has a diamond crystal structure and is consequently very brittle. These silicon structure damage the mechanical properties and nucleates on aluminium phosphide particles that is present in the melt as impurities. Further addition of sodium to the melt getters the phosphorous, which thereby increases the difficulty of sodium nucleation. Solidification is suppressed to lower temperature where the nucleation rate is large. This leads to remarkable refinement of microstructure. [9] Aluminium Silicon [9] From the figure above the dark feature is a shrinkage pore caused by a casting defect. This figure shows the coarse silicon plates in an aluminium matrix. 3.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS Microalloyed connecting-rod is manufactured by a simplified thermomechanical treatment like controlled cooling following hot forging. Through these processes desired properties could be obtained without quenching and tempering treatments. Hence powder forging was selected which would conveniently satisfy the manufacturing process for the selected material and component. 3.2.1 POWDER FORGING Powder forging rods are manufactured by combining metal powders into a pre-form that is sintered and reheated to forging temperature. Then it is completely forged to its final shape and machined to its final dimensions. This mixed powder is compacted at room temperature and high pressure upto to 200 to 400MPa. At the end of the process the powdered material acquires a density of 70 to 85%. This process has resulted in fully dense shape part which makes it suitable for high performance applications where high durability and strength are required. The detailed manufacturing route of this PF process is shown below: [12] The advantages of using PF process are, Good dimensional accuracy Minimum scattering of weight Energy saving [12] 3.2.2 MICROSTRUCTURE [13] [13pdf] From the photograph of the microstructure of the connecting-rod material it is clear that the component contains pearlite and ferrite materials in composition. The above picture clearly indicates that in the powder metal connecting rods oxides are removed from the material surface by shot peening but the oxides are entrapped and remain below the surface causing the crack to originate below the surface . 3.3 MANUFACTURING PROCESS 3.3.1 FORGING [ss] The material selected for the crankshaft is forged steel which has a desirable mechanical properties such as adequate strength, toughness, hardness, and high fatigue strength. Hence the suitable manufacturing process for this steel is forging. Forging is a basic process in which the work-piece is shaped by compressive forces applied through various dies and tooling. For this forging process the dimensional tolerance range from  ±0.5 to  ±1% of the forging dimensions. At higher temperatures of about 700 °C dynamic forging recrystallisation occurs which increases the stress and strain deformation of the metal to make it hard. Manufacturing route: Prepare a slug or billet Heat the work-piece in the suitable furnace For hot forging, preheat and lubricate the dies Forge the billet in appropriate dies and in the proper sequence Clean the forging and check its dimensions Perform additional operations such as heat treatments and straightening Inspect for defects In the hot forging process to form a metal billet two or more dies are brought together to each other at a suitable room temperature in a shape of the die impression. This process follows two basic requirements, The strength of the material must be low so that the die pressure can be kept within the limits. The material should be capable of deforming without failure and should allow required amount of deformation. The flow of metal and die filling are mainly determined by (i) flow stress and cooling ability (ii) friction and cooling effects at the material interface. In this process, definite amount of heat is received by all the parts after machining in heat treatment process. This is mainly carried-out to improve fatigue and wear properties. High quality parts with moderate cost can be made by this process. Thus this process offers high strength to weight ratio, toughness and resistance to impact and fatigue to the material which is considered in the performance of the crank shaft. [14] 3.3.2 MICROSTRUCTURE Heating above recrystallisation temperature causes recrystallisation that removes the microstructure deformed and generated recrystallised grains. After eutectoid-carburizing martensite transformation takes place and a black portion near the surface is formed consisting of fine grains of ferrite and carbide. On quenching from the austentite (ÃŽ ³) phase martensite is formed. This transformation is a diffusion-less shear transformation . Martensite is too brittle in plain carbon steel for practical applications and is subsequently tempered to restore some toughness. CHAPTER 4 ALTERNATE MATERIAL 4.1 ALTERNATE MATERIAL FOR PISTON[hh] Cast iron refers to the family of ferrous alloys composed of iron, carbon ranging from 2.11% to about 4.5% and silicon of about 3.5%. They are classified by their structure ferritic, pearlitic, quenched and tempered or austempered. The equilibrium phase diagram relevant to cast iron is shown below where right boundary is 100%C. The eutectic temperature is 1154 °C and thus cast irons are completely liquid at temperatures lower than those required for liquid steels. One of the major disadvantage of the aluminium as the base metal of the piston is that it has high co-efficient of linear expansion in the range of 0.0000221per °C, compared with 0.0000117per °C of cast iron. Aluminium has twice the expansion rate of cast iron. Cementite is metastable (not completely stable) which has a tremendously low decomposition rate. However it can be made decomposed into alpha-ferrite and graphite. The graphitization can be controlled, promoted and accelerated by adding silicon, controlling the rate of cooling and modifying the composition.[ss] [15] 1.4.1 LIMITATIONS Relative density is high of about 7.8 When in tension, the presence of graphite acts as a stress riser weakens the material. Strength properties of the cast iron are significantly affected by the shape and size of graphite. Higher material and manufacturing cost. The major disadvantage is the shrinkage. 1.4.2 POTENTIAL BENEFITS Presence of graphite in cast iron improves wear-resistance as it acts as a lubricant. High carbon content-degradation of ductility and fracture toughness. Good corrosion-resistance. Easy machinability Wide range of composition and microstructures-easy weldability. 4.2 ALTERNATE MATERIAL FOR CON-ROD The alternate material chosen for connecting rod is aluminium alloyed material as it is light in weight and provides long service life to the part. The aluminium alloys are high strength-to-weight ratio, resistance to corrosion by many chemicals, high conductivity and ease of formability. The material composition of aluminium is 7.6 to 8.4% Zn,1.8-2.3%Mg, 2-2.6%Cu, 0.08-0.25%Zr, 0.10%Si, 0.15%Fe, 0.05%Mn, 0.04%Cr and 0.06%Ti. When compared to othe alloys it convinces the constrains like low thermal expansion, wear-resistant, high fatigue strength and buckling. Majorly this material is chosen based on the following consideration: Mass consideration Strength and wear consideration Expansion consideration Heat-conduction consideration http://www.streetperformance.com/ART/PRODUCTS/100687/14012-8.jpg[19] 2.4.1 LIMITATIONS It is more expensive than cast iron. Low dimensional accuracy and poor surface finish. Solidification is very slow. Occurrence of fracture in short transverse direction. Expansion rate is high when compared to cast iron with oure aluminium. 2.4.2 POTENTIAL BENEFITS Aluminium alloys can be easily machined and welded and formed. High dimensional accuracy with long service life. High yield strength in both tensile and compression. Aluminium is much better conductor of heat than cast iron. Aluminium alloys provide improved resistance to abrasion and produce strength over temperature range. Improves the performances of the piston and thus the engine. 4.3 ALTERNATE MATERIAL FOR CRANKSHAFT As the crankshaft is the heavier moving part in the automotive engine, the material selected for this part has to be strong and light. Titanium alloys having high strength with reduced weight is used for crankshaft until and unless cost is not considered, as this material is very expensive. http://amt-advanced-materials-technology.com/s/cc_images/cache_867254901.jpg[17] 4.3.1 POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF TITANIUM ALLOYS Titanium has high melting point of about1678 °C which specifies strong creep and strength above wide temperature range. The density is about 55% of steel with comparable strength. Ti alloys exists in two allotropic forms ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ² Presence of thin oxide surface film-resistance over atmospher and sea environments including chlorine and organic chemicals. Reacts rapidly with oxygen, nitrogen and constituents in cutting tools at high temperature. 4.3.2 LIMITATIONS Embrittlement occurs during fabrication because of susceptibility of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Forging with titanium alloys is expensive but it increases the strength of the material. Ti alloys has a tendency to madden when tightening with connecting rod using bolt. Titanium is more difficult to machine due its reactive nature. Niobium Titanium[16] CHAPTER 5 ALTERNATE MANUFACTURING PROCESS 5.1 ALTERNATE MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR PISTON 5.1.1 SAND CASTING Sand casting is a one of the most feasible manufacturing process where the unit production is comparatively less. In this process a mixture of sand and clay is compacted around the pattern in which the pattern retains the shape of the original component to be produced. Then the pattern is removed in order have the cavity in the shape of the pattern. Generally low cost wooden patterns with gateways and runner are used. The molten metal is poured into the gateway by which it runs through the runner and fills the cavity and forms the exact shape of the cavity. Actually this whole system is housed in a box called flask. After which the molten metal allowed to solidify by cooling it. As the molten metal is solidified the sand pattern is broken and final work is done to obtain the finished component. The figure below shows the manufacturing process of the sand casting in detail. http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file.php/1689/T173_2_020i.jpg Fig(8.1) Sand Casting Process [18] 5.1.2ADVANTAGES Low tooling and equipment cost Component with any complicated shape can be produced Relatively cheap process Possibly components can be produced in large quantity. 5.1.3 DISADVANTAGES High tolerance ratio is required Labour cost is high. 5.2 ALTERNATE MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR CON-ROD 5.2.1 SQUEEZE DIE CASTING Squeeze die casting or liquid metal casting involves the process of solidification of molten metal under high pressure. The machinery includes a die, punch and ejector-pin. Under the pressure applied by the punch keeps the entrapped gases in solution and the rapid heat transfer takes place at the die-metal contact which results in fine microstructure with good mechanical properties.[ss] Elimination of shrinkage and gas porosity happens because of precise metal metering, quiescent die filling and high pressure. 5.2.2 ADVANTAGES Precise dimension, Excellent surface finish, Fully shaped component is obtained Complex part can be made to near-shape. 5.2.3 DISADVANTAGES High initial cost Limitation of high fluidity metals[20] 5.3 ALTERNATE MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR CRANKSHAFT 5.3.1 FORGING In forging operations the metal is squeezed to shape by die in which the metal is subjected to large plastic deformation. These metals are placed in-between closed dies under high temperature and pressure which results in succession of the final shape. http://www.forcast.ca/images/00436_faq1.gif[21] Forgings generally are subjected to additional finishing operations, such as heat treating to modify properties and machining to obtain accurate final dimensions and surface finish. 5.3.2 ADVANTAGES Good utilizations of materials Good dimensional accuracy High production rate Good reproducibility Low die costs 5.3.3 DISADVANTAGES Initial cost is high Not economical for small quantities Machining often necessaries

Exploring Schizophrenia Essay -- Psychology Mental Disorders Neurology

Exploring Schizophrenia Schizophrenia which affects approximately 1 percent of the population, usually begins before age 25 and persists throughout life. The illness is a life long debilitating condition for about 40% of patients and is enormously costly in both social and economic terms. Despite the presence of delusions, hallucinations and cognitive impairment which characterize the illness, overall life expectancy is not altered (although there is a significantly increased risk-of suicide in the early years). Schizophrenia is usually viewed as a functional psychosis, a label which implies that the symptoms arise from the disorderly activity of neurons without accompanying anatomical and pathological alterations of brain structure. This view is due to the failure of pathologists to find convincing pathological changes associated with the disease in the first seven decades of the century. Over the last ten years things have changed considerably. Recent CT and MRI scan, and also postmortem studies show that various brain areas of schizophrenic patients are altered. HISTORY The two key people in the history of Schizophrenia were Emil Kraepelin and Eugene Blealer. Kraepelin organized the seriously mentally ill patients by three diagnostic groups: dementia praecox, manic depressive psychosis, and paranoia. Kraeplin?s description of dementia praecox emphasize a chronic deteriorating course, in addition to including such clinical phenomena as hallucinations and delusions. Kraepelin reported that approximately 4% of his patients had complete recoveries and 13% had significant remissions. The term "manic depressive psychosis" identified patients who experienced episodes of illness separated by virtually complete remissio... .... C., Caroff, S.. Dann, R., Silver, F. L., Saykin. A/ J., Chawluk, J. B., Kushner, M., Reivich, M. Regional brain function in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 44:119, 1987- Grebb, J. A., Weinberger, D. R. and Wyatt, R. J. Schizophrenia. In Diseases of the nervous system, A. K. Asbury, G. M. McKhann, W. I. Mcdonald, editors, Vol. 2. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1986. Hamilton, M. Fish?s Clinical Psvchopathology, ed. 2, Wright, Bristol, 1985. Henn, F. A., Naerallah, H. A,, editors: Schizophrenia as a Brain Disease. Oxford, New York, 1982. Naerallah, H. A., Weinberger, D. R. The Neurology of Schizophrenia, In Handbook of Schizophrenia, H. A. Nasrallah, editor, Vol. 1., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1986. Roberts, G. W. and Bruton, C. J. Notes from the graveyard: neuropathology and schizophrenia. Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, 16: 3-16, 1990.

Lincoln Electric Case Study :: GCSE Business Management BTEC Coursework

Lincoln Electric Case Study The Lincoln Electric Company is the world’s largest manufacturer of arc welding products and a leading producer of industrial electric motors. Their key competency is achieving higher worker productivity. Every year the company has seen high profits and bonuses. Employee morale and productivity remains very good and employees are very loyal to the company. The company also puts customers goals as top priority. Organization Structure This is a very organic organization. They do not have a formal organization chart in this company because they want to ensure maximum flexibility. They have an open-door policy in which employees take problems to the people that are most capable of solving them. Routine supervision is almost nonexistent. Lincoln has a fairly flat organization in which there are usually two or three levels of supervision between production workers and the president. Employees are evaluated on quality, dependability, ideas and cooperation, and output. They also have great job security, while also being able to participate in decision-making. Problem identification Lincoln Electric does not really seem to have any big problems in their current operations while working under an organic structure, but one problem seems to be the lack of attention that the stockholders get. At Lincoln, the stockholders are given last priority. The whole philosophy behind this is that they think that it will be more profitable than investing money in any other way. Alternatives considered Alternatives for this company is to work towards making some of their activities mechanistic while keeping some functions organic. The other alternative is to keep the company going as is with no change. If there is no problem to be fixed, than don’t try fixing it, since it will result in more problems. Once some Harvard Business School researchers made up an organization chart for the company and the management felt that it had a disruptive effect. One big item that they want to consider is to pay a little more attention to the stockholders, which are financing the company. Alternatives selected and rationale The alternative selected is to keep the company going like it is with the organic structure.

Alcoholism: A Major Problem in Russia

Alcoholism is one of the leading social causes of mortality in the world today. It has been and will always be ranked among the favorite indulgence of people globally. For ages, governments, health organizations and other social groups continue to find ways to limit if not to end the abuse of alcoholic drinking. Alcoholism has claimed millions of lives among different nationalities. Due to its wide spread acceptance as a social norm, people treat alcoholism as a part of daily routine. Although different measures are currently being implemented, many still deny the emergence of alcoholic beverages as detrimental to human health.The incidence of alcohol abuse is alarming. Global statistics show an increase of alcoholics among teenagers and young adults. With this kind of trend, social experts presume a mortality rate higher among the younger generation than the older population. While concern is everywhere, it is sad to note that responsibility has a hard time to flourish inside the ve ry foundation of an individual’s life. Parents and teachers can do more to drive away the deadly influence of alcohol from their children and families.With the way alcohol-related incidents are emerging nowadays, keeping this social problem in check takes a larger part of the globe to cooperate. Being rampant, alcoholism is a worldwide problem that is being faced by most countries throughout the corners of the earth. Governments are getting involved like never before in controlling the social inhibition which is gaining entry into people’s lives uninvited. With alcoholism besieging every corner of the society, the international community is taking a second look. Patronizing alcoholic drinks have deadly repercussions.The high death rate among nationalities of all ages is glaring evidence. Alcohol-related offenses and incidents will continue to haunt globally unless precautionary measures are set in place at once. THE RUSSIAN CRISIS Among the countries suffering the ill- effects of alcoholism is Russia. â€Å"Studies indicate that in Russia at least 30 percent of men and 15 percent of women are addicted to alcohol† (â€Å"Alcoholism in Russia†, 2002). Originally a leading nation in the former Soviet Union, Russia has snagged the prime position in alcohol consumption.The world-known vodka spearheads the popularity of Russians on the global stage. But vodka is only a tiny bit of statistic about the real waves which is alarming Russia today. The communist state is in deep hole. Unless its government starts thinking about countermeasures to address the internal complication, alcoholism will be in Russia to stay for a very long, long time. â€Å"The cases have dominated news reports and Cabinet meetings, fueling debate about a malaise that has helped lower Russia's average life expectancy rate to 66, 14 years shorter than the European Union average† (Nicholson, 2006).Analysts and observers have long been concerned about the Russianâ €™s delight for alcoholic beverages but it is only as of late did it able to catch media frenzy. The occurrence of deaths among young Russians has increased. For many, celebrations in the former Tsarist nation have gone out of proportion. The government is thinking about alternatives that will limit its citizens’ fondness for alcoholic beverages. However, instead of restricting Russians from feasting on alcoholic drinks, the situation turns even more complicated than has been initially perceived.It is unfortunate that everybody is watching an entire nation drink itself to death. Nations and societies around the world are concerned about criminal cases caused by alcoholism on such a small account. But it is interesting to note that Russia continue to survive despite being hounded by alcoholism on a massive scale of related incidents. Everyday, it is customary for a young citizen in this country to walk the streets with a bottle in hand. Drunks are a common sight in this on ce-Stalinist community. Men and women, it doesn’t really matter which citizen gets a taste of that famous vodka and beer.â€Å"One of the most striking changes in Russian cities in recent years is certainly the habit teenagers of both sexes have developed of roaming the streets with a bottle of beer as a fashion accessory† (Warren, 2001). Age is never a question among Russian drinkers. Individuals as young as thirteen years of age experience a new-found freedom with the death-causing bottle. ALCOHOLIC ACCOUNTS Many people believe that the famous American recovery program Alcoholics Anonymous should have arrived in Russia earlier to break the alcohol addiction.The government only allowed AA to be implemented in the mid-80s. Although it has been instrumental in controlling alcoholism in various Russian areas, the problem is still very much prevalent. But experts say that the real cause of country’s alcoholic inhibition is its history. Liquor especially the famous vodka is very much a Russian tradition. Since the Crusades, alcoholic drinks present a celebratory lifestyle in Russia. Numerous leaders since Lenin call for a total elimination of liquor. But countless times, alcoholic drinks continue to thrive until today.Even during the modern times in the 90s prior to the collapse of the Soviet Empire, the famous Mikhail Gorbachev want to ban the presence of alcohol from the mainstream of the society to no avail. It is an interesting fact that after the Soviet Union crumbles, Boris Yeltsin, who replaces Gorbachev, is a vodka fan himself. Russia continues to ride the wave with this new leader on the post. The country’s rise out from the ashes of communism allows a thorough look of its economic and social situation. In the past, the nation relies upon itself to resolve its internal woes.Without outside influence, Russia continues to deny the growing menace brought by alcoholism. But as it gradually opens up to the world, evident incidents a re being revealed. Due to its transition towards a capitalist state, Russia is now losing control on its newly-introduced freedom. There are various concerns that the motherland is now busy about. But with different priorities on the table, it is very likely that the nation can be able to address all concerns in one setting. By American standards, Russian alcohol consumption almost doubles what their former Cold War counterparts actually drink.â€Å"The average Russian male drinks about four gallons of pure alcohol per year, which amounts to about a pint of vodka every other day. To put it in perspective, this is nearly twice what Americans consume† (â€Å"Alcoholism in Russia†, 2002). In the early 21st century, Russia has been known to consume more alcohol than any other country in the world. It is hardly an honor since it reflects the numerous young Russians dying annually of alcohol-related diseases. Many workers in the nation are quick to defend themselves about th eir indulgence on alcohol. Social drinking is a particular explanation of choice for many.But this kind of reasoning costs millions of dollars in business losses due to counter productivity. Numerous workers don’t show up for work for a couple of days or even for a week. Concerns are never limited within the Russian nation. International groups show interest in lending support to contain alcoholism. However, it is never meant to be easy. Most of the country’s citizens have a hand on the bottle. It is hard for these people to part with the poison which they have been accustomed to have all their lives. As for the young Russians, everything is a learning experience.Every once in a while, drinks are up for grabs either for killing the time or for bonding with friends. There are numerous angles to tackle the alcoholism in Russia. The solutions may come handy but individuals are very much into the drinking habit. Analysts consider treating the disease among the older genera tion as out of bounds due to the degree of addiction. What most observers are concerned about is the increasing number of alcoholics among the young people. Everybody wants to end the cycle. But the Russians are still very much in the flow of things.And that makes the alcohol hard to prohibit. Most of the citizens want a drink. A drop of vodka can end up with the entire bottle. Even a leader like Yeltsin can be a motivating factor among the people to enjoy the perks of alcoholism. GOVERNMENT ACTION The election of Vladimir Putin to the Russian presidency can be the answer to the alcoholic woes plaguing the motherland. So far in his administration, the government has imposed a heavy tax on alcoholic beverages. Control over factories which produces alcoholic beverages is currently being sought by the president.The production of vodka and related alcoholic drinks has been limited. But the Russians continue to find sources of these drinks elsewhere. However, a new concern soon emerges. Being known throughout the world as a great lover of vodka, no one, not even the national government can prevent a Russian drinker to part with his favorite drink. Numerous citizens acquire impure or otherwise counterfeit alcoholic drinks from all the corners of the nation. With vodka unavailable or limited on the store shelves, individuals are looking for other means to supplement their craving for alcohol in their system.The only setback is that these alternative alcoholic beverages are considered second grade to the originally produced vodka and beer. The contents of these drinks can be detrimental to the health. â€Å"The profusion of poor-quality and counterfeit products on our alcohol market is a huge problem,† Putin said (Bigg, 2006). But Russian addiction to alcohol continues to prevail nonetheless. A derivative of the old vodka is being sold in the streets and this causes problems not merely to the citizens but to the government as well.President Putin’s gover nment imposes new tax regulations aimed at limiting the production of alcoholic beverages throughout the country. â€Å"The authorities hoped that the alcohol reform, by slapping a tax on industrial spirits, would curb bootleg vodka production and bring down the number of alcohol-poisoning deaths† (Bigg, 2006). This restrictive approach has so far working at least. It controls the factories distilling alcoholic drinks. Many suppliers and producers have been restricted in their capability to bring vodka on a massive scale. The factories know that Russians loved drinking.There is a lot of money to be made in the alcoholic beverage market. But with high taxes, the producers are paying more than what they should be in the past. Income has been hampered altogether and so they choose to limit their production instead. Prior to the implementation of new taxation ordinances, the government taps different economic and social organization to have a hand in the alcoholism problem in Rus sia. Anywhere in the former communist bloc, individuals clutch bottles under their hands. Persons below the legal age are having the time of their lives enjoying the vodka, the beer and the other imported hard liquor.Parents, teachers, relatives and guardians balk at the responsibility of checking the drinking habits of many people. There is hesitation in ending or controlling the consumption of alcohol primarily because drinking is hard to subdue. Enjoying a drink is a common occurrence even from the time of the Tsars and the Bolshevists. Attempts have been made to eradicate it but tradition has it that Russia finds joy in vodka. The availability of alcoholic beverages throughout the Russian nation is a prime cause of excessive drinking. Any way an individual looks, there is a reason to celebrate.Prices prior to the government’s restrictive law are affordable. It allows the citizens to acquire no matter how many bottles they can consume. Alcohol is spread out in Russia as a prelude to an impending fiesta celebration of some kind. The drinking habit is perhaps a culture that may never go out of style. Russians like to drink. Whether it is dangerous to their health, it doesn’t entirely matter. Various organizations and agencies participate in the government’s drive to check Russia’s dreaded disease. The total elimination of alcoholic brands never crosses the priority list of inspectors and enforcers.What is initially discussed is a method of controlling alcohol consumption among Russians. The whole country knows that it is drinking itself to death. Statistics show an increase of mortality rates caused by alcoholism. Even the world is watching. Everybody is concerned about the health risks in Russia. But the love for the bottle is just too much. Non-profit and non-government organizations launch an investigative program to trace Russia’s addiction to alcohol. Instead of focusing on the prohibitive measures, another option to ta ckle the problem is being pursued.The root motivation behind the drinking habits of many Russians is being sought to be acted upon. Historical accounts about the drinking habits of the former Bolshevists’ country are opened. Living conditions are observed. For things to be helpful to the Russians, cooperation means everything. RECENT HISTORY Russia is in the forefront of the now-defunct Soviet Union. Although the central government controls most of the country’s political and social machineries, the Union States experience progress all throughout. The Soviet empire is a proud federation.Not so long ago, its stature poses to be a threat to international security. With the communist party at the helm, laws and regulations are strictly imposed. Citizens are at the mercy of the State. Statistical figures about alcoholism rates are kept under wraps. The extent of alcohol addiction under communist rule is deceiving. Nobody knows how grave the danger is at that time. The gove rnment is hiding details since the Cold War era is still in effect. All along, the focus is on winning that war. Internal conflicts are ignored or ceased to be addressed.The greatest battle that Russia has undergone is its transition from a communist nation to a capitalist state. The country has been under the red flag for so long that life all over the empire will be disastrous if reforms are pushed. Citizens believe that there is no other way to live in the country but under equal terms, under communist control, that is. When the world prevails against the communists, walls start crumbling down. Berlin signals an end to the era of the mighty Soviet Republics. People everywhere in Eastern Europe call for democratic shift in government platforms.The demise of communism is only a matter of time. By the time changes are in place, another problem surfaces. Russia and its former communist bloc have trouble starting a capitalist nation. The break from the old tradition is harder than ini tially perceived. Although assistance from the United States and other countries come in swiftly, Russia has problems settling a restless population. Internal turmoil besieges the nation as calls for immediate reforms, freedom and a new way of life mounted. Under the communist machinery, Russians are so accustomed to being taken cared of on just everything that they need.Food, shelter and clothing are being supplied by the central government. The only thing missing at that time is freedom. Restrictions are a part of everyday life. When capitalism emerges, Russia felt somewhat confused with all the freedom available. Without total control, chaos soon erupts. Russia’s transition towards democracy takes time to fully sink in. Political analysts say that adjustment to a new system can be discouraging but definitely a necessity if the country intends to survive. The government drops a number of industries and allows these businesses to be privatized.With a free hand on situations and many other things, many Russians have trouble providing themselves and their families with their basic needs. Unlike before, people must find a job or something to build upon in order to earn money to survive. But the situation makes it hard for all individuals to get a work primarily because most industries are still starting out. Many companies and factories are managing their costs to stay competitive while trying to attain stability. The political and social upheaval in the post-Cold War Russia turns out to be a miserable experience for many citizens.Jobs are scarce. The government is trying hard to make both ends meet. The entire country is apparently on its own. In response to the anguish and harsh living conditions across Russia, alcohol is the immediate problem reliever. People get numbed after a stretch of drinking and this allows many citizens to simply sleep through with their problems at least for the night. ALCOHOL AS THE ANSWER Vodka is not only a celebratory instr ument to be toasted and treasured in Russian life. Alcoholic drinks are being used by numerous individuals as an escape from hardship.With nothing much to offer, the government has no solutions to offer on its people’s plight. Because of this, many Russians seek the comfort of the bottle. Alcohol is a refuge among poor Russians. Consumption is increased to drown the sorrows of the day. Perhaps even the government officials get to drink some vodka to calm their nerves after a nerve-wracking activity at the Politburo. Numerous alcoholic beverages gain immediate acceptance in the mainstream of the society. All over Russia is dealing with birth pains of a capitalist state. Adapting to democratic principles is never easy.The financial market is down. The nation is in ruins. What is once a mighty and proud empire sits atop a sandlot thinking warily about the future. With international assistance and support, Russia overcomes a multitude of depressing turmoil. As it manages to adapt to capitalism, growth and development soon result to progress all throughout the levels of the society. With the nation back on its feet, the country is ready to face new challenges. The demands of its citizens are slowly being addressed one way or the other. By the time Russia pedals with the rest of the world, alcoholism is simply ignored.For many Russians, the risk of drinking a little too many is a common cause for celebration. Deaths caused by alcohol are a common occurrence. It is a different story in Russia. Excessive drinking is a leading cause in mortality among its citizens. As the situation worsens, the government ignores the pleas of the people. As the worldwide and national attention heightens, there is no other way to deal with the incidents but to address the situation. Under President Putin, regulatory measures are implemented. Factories limit their production on alcoholic beverages. Russians are finding it extremely hard to grab an alcoholic drink.No matter how str ict government laws are, citizens still manage to squeeze in a bottle or two for a night’s consumption. The drinking habits among Russians just keep getting better. Old folks consume alcohol more than their usual limits. It brings up a negative example for the younger generation to follow. The young people pick up their habits as well from the older population. It is no wonder that teenagers as young as thirteen or fourteen are gaining addiction to alcohol. â€Å"In a country renowned for hard drinking, most people aren't surprised to hear that 42,000 people die from counterfeit alcohol in Russia each year† (Nicholson, 2006).Russians are resourceful enough to find alternative sources. If the government is firm in its stance to paralyze the alcohol industry, the citizens are quick to scout the area for possible sources of vodka, beer and other alcoholic drinks. The only danger is the contents of these alternative beverages. â€Å"Perfumes, aftershave, cleaning liquids and other fluids have been passed off by counterfeiters as vodka for decades, and have long been on the drinks list of Russia's more desperate alcoholics† (Nicholson, 2006).Being counterfeit, the risk of vodka being impure is a hundred folds higher that the original. This can be an added cause of deaths among Russian drinkers. It is not alcohol consumption alone that is in question. â€Å"Compounding the problem is the cheap price tag carried by a bottle of fake liquor† (Bigg, 2006). CONCLUSION Whether the mortality rate has been increased by excessive alcohol consumption or counterfeit patronization, many Russian groups are convinced that finding the solution to the alcoholic situation in Russia is merely another political ploy.Numerous organizations are very much aware of the government’s takeover of important industries such as oil and gas in the nation. Party groups believe that the administration is seeking to include the alcohol industry under its control. Heating up the already complicated alcohol consumption among citizens is one reason enough to revitalize the government’s claim. However, with or without political hitches, alcoholism in Russia is a serious problem. People must treat the situation not merely as part of a tradition or just a common celebration. Persons are dying.Alcohol in excess is deadly. If Russian lives are to be saved, the government must seek the cooperation of its people in order to address this national concern. REFERENCES Bigg, C.. Russia: Alcohol Reform Blamed for Outbreak of Poisonings. RadioFreeEurope. (2006, Oct. 30). Retrieved November 15, 2007 from http://www. rferl. org/featuresarticle/2006/10/67164cf3-a58d-4a76-aae0-e4f64e992f9b. html Eke, S.. Fake Russian Alcohol ‘Kills Many. ’ BBC News. (2006, June 23). Retrieved November 15, 2007 from http://news. bbc. co. uk/2/hi/europe/5111762. stmNicholson, A.. Alcohol Deaths Spark Debate in Russia. Boston. Com. (2006, Nov. 4). Retrieved Nov ember 15, 2007 from http://www. boston. com/news/world/europe/articles/2006/11/04/alcohol_deaths_spark_debate_in_russia/ Warren, M.. Lone Crusader Fights Russia’s Alcohol Problem. Telegraph. Co. UK. (2001, June 19). Retrieved November 15, 2007 from http://www. telegraph. co. uk/news/main. jhtml? xml=/news/2001/02/03/wrus03. xml Alcoholism in Russia. Everything2. (2002, October 22). Retrieved November 15, 2007 from http://everything2. com/index. pl? node_id=1380040

Opportunity costs are other uses of resources Essay

The opportunity cost of any action is defined as the next best alternative to that action. The concept of opportunity costs explain that for every opportunity pursued, there is a cost associated with that opportunity. Every choice has a trade-off because one would usually give up something in favor of the first choice, given one’s limited resources. Limited resources imply scarcity, and a scarce resource used for one thing means that some other thing is foregone. Opportunity costs are usually assessed in terms of money, but it can also be considered in terms of anything that is deemed of value to the company, such as time, production or mechanical output, or any other kind of limited resource. The opportunity cost is usually the difference of value between the first choice and the alternative—for example, the difference between the actual performance of one’s current investment and some other desired investment is considered the opportunity cost of that investment. Another opportunity cost that should be considered includes the cost investing a company’s resources in new capital goods in lieu of its current production of consumer goods. Other kind of opportunities that would have associated opportunity costs include investing, supplying capital, purchasing goods, saving money, and specialization.